python-backend-expert

What this skill does

# Python Backend Expert

## When to Use

Activate this skill when:
- Creating or modifying FastAPI route handlers (endpoints)
- Defining or updating Pydantic v2 request/response schemas
- Writing SQLAlchemy 2.0 async models, queries, or relationships
- Implementing the repository pattern for data access
- Writing service layer business logic
- Creating or running Alembic migrations
- Setting up dependency injection chains with `Depends()`
- Handling errors across the route/service/repository layers

Do NOT use this skill for:
- Writing tests for backend code (use `pytest-patterns`)
- FastAPI framework mechanics — middleware, WebSockets, OpenAPI customization, CORS, lifespan (use `fastapi-patterns`)
- Deployment or CI/CD pipeline configuration (use `deployment-pipeline`)
- API contract design or endpoint planning (use `api-design-patterns`)
- Architecture decisions or layer design (use `system-architecture`)

## Instructions

### Project Structure

```
app/
├── main.py              # FastAPI application factory
├── core/
│   ├── config.py        # pydantic-settings configuration
│   ├── database.py      # Async engine, session factory
│   └── security.py      # Password hashing, JWT utilities
├── models/              # SQLAlchemy ORM models
│   ├── __init__.py
│   ├── base.py          # Declarative base
│   └── user.py
├── schemas/             # Pydantic v2 schemas
│   ├── __init__.py
│   └── user.py
├── repositories/        # Data access layer
│   ├── __init__.py
│   └── user_repo.py
├── services/            # Business logic layer
│   ├── __init__.py
│   └── user_service.py
├── routes/              # FastAPI routers
│   ├── __init__.py
│   └── users.py
├── dependencies/        # Reusable Depends() providers
│   ├── __init__.py
│   └── auth.py
└── exceptions.py        # Domain exception classes
```

### FastAPI Endpoint Pattern

Every endpoint follows this structure:

```python
router = APIRouter(prefix="/users", tags=["Users"])

@router.post("/", response_model=UserResponse, status_code=status.HTTP_201_CREATED)
async def create_user(
    data: UserCreate,
    session: AsyncSession = Depends(get_async_session),
) -> UserResponse:
    service = UserService(session)
    try:
        user = await service.create_user(data)
        return UserResponse.model_validate(user)
    except ConflictError as e:
        raise HTTPException(status_code=status.HTTP_409_CONFLICT, detail=str(e))


@router.get("/{user_id}", response_model=UserResponse)
async def get_user(
    user_id: int,
    session: AsyncSession = Depends(get_async_session),
) -> UserResponse:
    service = UserService(session)
    try:
        user = await service.get_user(user_id)
        return UserResponse.model_validate(user)
    except NotFoundError as e:
        raise HTTPException(status_code=status.HTTP_404_NOT_FOUND, detail=str(e))
```

**Rules:**
- Routes handle HTTP concerns only: status codes, `HTTPException`, response formatting
- Routes call services, never repositories directly
- Use `response_model` for automatic response serialization and OpenAPI docs
- Use `status.HTTP_*` constants, not bare integers
- Use `Depends()` for session, auth, and service injection

### Repository Pattern

Repositories encapsulate all database access:

```python
from sqlalchemy import select
from sqlalchemy.ext.asyncio import AsyncSession
from sqlalchemy.orm import selectinload

from app.models.user import User


class UserRepository:
    def __init__(self, session: AsyncSession) -> None:
        self._session = session

    async def get_by_id(self, user_id: int) -> User | None:
        result = await self._session.execute(
            select(User).where(User.id == user_id)
        )
        return result.scalar_one_or_none()

    async def get_by_email(self, email: str) -> User | None:
        result = await self._session.execute(
            select(User).where(User.email == email)
        )
        return result.scalar_one_or_none()

    async def list_with_posts(
        self, *, offset: int = 0, limit: int = 20
    ) -> list[User]:
        result = await self._session.execute(
            select(User)
            .options(selectinload(User.posts))
            .offset(offset)
            .limit(limit)
        )
        return list(result.scalars().all())

    async def create(self, user: User) -> User:
        self._session.add(user)
        await self._session.flush()
        await self._session.refresh(user)
        return user

    async def update(self, user: User, **kwargs: object) -> User:
        for key, value in kwargs.items():
            setattr(user, key, value)
        await self._session.flush()
        await self._session.refresh(user)
        return user

    async def delete(self, user: User) -> None:
        await self._session.delete(user)
        await self._session.flush()
```

**Rules:**
- One repository per model (or aggregate root)
- Repositories return model instances or `None` — never HTTP responses
- No business logic in repositories
- Always `flush()` + `refresh()` after `add()` to get generated fields (id, timestamps)
- Use `selectinload()` for eager loading relationships in async context
- Never raise `HTTPException` from repositories

### Service Layer Pattern

Services contain business logic and orchestrate repositories:

```python
from app.exceptions import ConflictError, NotFoundError
from app.models.user import User
from app.repositories.user_repo import UserRepository
from app.schemas.user import UserCreate, UserPatch
from app.core.security import hash_password


class UserService:
    def __init__(self, session: AsyncSession) -> None:
        self.repo = UserRepository(session)

    async def create_user(self, data: UserCreate) -> User:
        # Business rule: email must be unique
        existing = await self.repo.get_by_email(data.email)
        if existing:
            raise ConflictError(f"Email {data.email} already registered")

        # Business logic: hash password before storing
        user = User(
            email=data.email,
            hashed_password=hash_password(data.password),
            display_name=data.display_name,
        )
        return await self.repo.create(user)

    async def get_user(self, user_id: int) -> User:
        user = await self.repo.get_by_id(user_id)
        if user is None:
            raise NotFoundError(f"User {user_id} not found")
        return user

    async def update_user(self, user_id: int, data: UserPatch) -> User:
        user = await self.get_user(user_id)
        update_fields = data.model_dump(exclude_unset=True)
        if "password" in update_fields:
            update_fields["hashed_password"] = hash_password(update_fields.pop("password"))
        return await self.repo.update(user, **update_fields)
```

**Rules:**
- Services raise domain exceptions (`NotFoundError`, `ConflictError`), NEVER `HTTPException`
- Services are the only place for business logic
- Services call repositories for data access, never run raw queries
- Services receive `AsyncSession` via constructor and create their own repository instances
- Services validate business rules before calling repositories

### Domain Exceptions

Define a hierarchy of domain exceptions:

```python
class AppError(Exception):
    """Base application error."""

class NotFoundError(AppError):
    """Resource not found."""

class ConflictError(AppError):
    """Resource conflict (duplicate, version mismatch)."""

class ValidationError(AppError):
    """Business rule violation."""

class PermissionError(AppError):
    """Insufficient permissions."""
```

Register global exception handlers in the FastAPI app:

```python
from fastapi import FastAPI, Request
from fastapi.responses import JSONResponse

app = FastAPI()

@app.exception_handler(NotFoundError)
async def not_found_handler(request: Request, exc: NotFoundError) -> JSONResponse:
    return JSONResponse(status_code=404, content={"detail": str(exc), "code": "NOT_FOUND"})

@app.exception_handler(ConflictErr